根据动词的特性,构成英语中五个基本句型:
1) 主语 + 系动词 + 表语
2) 主语 + 不及物动词 (+ 其他成分)
3) 主语 + 及物动词 + 宾语
4) 主语 + 及物动词 + 双宾语
5) 主语 + 及物动词 + 宾语 + 宾语补足语
我们在学习5个基本句型时,主要关心每个句型中的出题点在哪里。
(一)第一句型:主语 + 系动词 + 表语
1) 系动词一般为be 动词。
注意:look, feel, sound, smell, taste, get, become, come, go, turn, grow, keep, seem, stand等词可以作“半系动词”用,按行为动词方式变化,起系动词的作用。
试验比较:
—— He felt the pockets thoroughly but did not find a single penny.(他摸遍了口袋但没有找到一分钱。—— feel为行为动词)
—— You look pale. Do you feel unwell? (你脸色苍白,感到不舒服?—— look / feel为系动词)
一般来说,动词后面跟的是个形容词或名词,该动词为系动词, 如:The plan sounds perfect. / The flower smells nice. / The dish tastes delicious. / It is getting dark.
实例:
“Don't worry. Let me take your pulse first.” “Oh, it ______ normal.” (脉搏正常)
A. is felt
B. is feeling
C. feels
D. felt
解题思路:normal为形容词,前面应为系动词;系动词没有被动语态,故A不对; look, feel, sound, taste, smell, seem等半系动词一般不用进行时,B也不对;D时态错了,故正确答案为C.
2)there be是英语中非常重要的一个句型: there是引导词,不解释 "那里"; 这是个倒装句, 主语在be动词的后面, be动词的单复数由后面的主语决定。
注意中国学生容易搞错的问题:
There isn't enough furniture in the room.(房间里家具不够)
错:There hasn't enough furniture in the room.
There is no doubt that smallpox has been wiped out in China.(毫无疑问,中国已消灭天花。)
错:It is no doubt that smallpox has been wiped out in China.
There is ample evidence that AIDS is spreading quickly in Asia. (充分证据表明,爱滋病正在亚洲迅速蔓延。—— 同位语从句)
错:It is evidence that AIDS is spreading quickly in Asia. (可以: It is evident that AIDS is spreading quickly in Asia. - 主语从句)
(二)第二句型:主语 + 不及物动词 (+ 其他成分)
在这个句型中主要注意及物动词与不及物动词的区分:
不及物动词 及物动词
rise /rose / risen(升起) raise /raised / raised (提高)
arise / arose / arisen (from)(产生) arouse / aroused / aroused(唤起)
lie / lay / lain(躺下) lay / laid / laid(放下)
arrive at(到达) reach(到达)
wait for(等待) await(等待)
remain(仍旧) maintain(保持,维修)
*上面所注仅为典型词义,要根据句子判别其他意思。
此外,该句型常采用倒装形式,注意辨别,主要是以下两种情况:
1) 用here 或 there引导:Here comes the bus. (汽车来了。) / There rings the bell. (铃响了。)
2) 在动词 + 介词短语的结构中,往往将介词短语提前:On the top of the hill stands a pretty little house.(山顶上有一座漂亮的小房子。)
(三)第三句型:主语 + 及物动词 + 宾语
我们知道,名词可以做主语和宾语,非谓语动词 -ing和 to do也可以做主语和宾语,
作主语:
Learning a foreign language is not easy.(学门外语并不容易。)
To learn a foreign language is not easy. (= It is not easy to learn a foreign language.)
从语法角度讲,上述两个表达方式都可以。
但是,当动词处于宾语位置时,就不能这样"随心所欲"了,因为英语语法有以下几个规定:
1)acknowledge / admit / appreciate / avoid / consider / contemplate / defer / deny / dislike / enjoy / escape / evade / excuse / facilitate / fancy / favor / feel like / finish / give up / cannot help / cannot stand / imagine / include / keep (on) / do not mind / miss / permit / practice / regret / resent / risk / suggest 等词后面的动词宾语必须用-ing 形式,重点和首先要掌握黑体字部分。由于这些次的词义与解题关系不大,没有给出具体词义解释。若需要,请学生自己查字典解决。
这是语法考试的一个重点,要对以上词特别敏感,例如:
It is impossible to avoid ______ by the stormy weather.
A. being much affected
B. having much affected
C. to be much affected
D. to have been much affected
解题思路:1)一看到avoid一词,便可确定正确答案在A、B中; 2)affect意为"影响",及物动词,故B不对。[如果做题时间来不及,此类题目若有"主动语态"和"被动语态"之分,一般选"被动语态"的正确率高些。]
2) remember / forget:后面既可跟 -ing, 也可跟 to do,但意思不一样:to do表示说话时还没有发生的事,-ing表示对已经发生过事的回忆,如:"我昨天出门时忘了关窗了。"显然是指出门时还没
有做的事,因此用to do形式;"我不记得以前见过你。"显然是指说话以前的事,因此用 -ing形式,即:
I forgot to close the windows when I left home yesterday.
I don't remember seeing you before.
因此,除了知道这个规定外,分清"发生过"还是"没有发生"是解题的关键。
实例:
Do you remember ______ to Professor Smith during your last visit?
A. to have been introduced
B. having introduced
C. being introduced
D. to be introduced
解题思路:1)第一步要确定"发生过"还是"没有发生",即A、D还是B、C,"你记得上次访问时被介绍给Smith教授的情况吗?"显然是已发生的事,选B、C;2)"introduce"(介绍)后没有宾语,说明是"被动语态:,故选C [再看一下上一节中的 "解题思路"]
3)need / want / require等解释为"需要"时,有两种表达方式,如:
"这间会客室需要打扫一下"
A.This waiting room needs to be cleaned. (to 被动式)
B.This waiting room needs cleaning.(-ing主动式)
考试时若同时出现两种选择,选B
4)look forward to / object to / subject to / be subjected to / be opposed to / oppose to中的 "to" 是介词,后面应跟名词或动名词-ing,
(四)第四句型:主语 + 及物动词 + 双宾语
有些动词(主要是"授予动词")后面需要或可以接双宾语结构,如:give, write, buy, send, make等
You may send him an E-mail or write him a letter.
这个句子也可使用以下结构:
You may send an E-mail (to him) or write a letter to him. 所以 "to" 和 "for" 是连接双宾语结构的重要介词。
该句型的重点是要记住以下短语,特别是所用的介词:
to cure … of(治愈…)
to accuse …of(谴责…)
to convince… of(说服…)
to inform… of(通知…)
to notify… of (通知…)
to clean… of (清除…)
to warn…… of / against (警告…)
to cheat… of(欺骗)
to rob… of(抢劫…)
例如:
We have to inform the family of the patient's condition as soon as possible. / Have the family been informed of the patient's condition? (我们得尽快将病人的病情通知其家属。/ 已经将病人的病情通知其家人了吗?)
注意下面句子的结构变化:
May I ask you a question? → May I ask a question of you?
直接和间接宾语的位置与上面短语有何不同?
(五)第五句型:主语 + 及物动词 + 宾语 + 宾语补足语
先回顾一下本讲第一节中有关宾语和宾语补足语的概念。
这个句型也是考试的重点,主要有三个难点:
1) 要不要 "to"的问题:
The director wants you to come right now. (主任要你马上就来。)
句中to come 是宾语you的补足语。也就是说,当宾语补足语是动词时,一般要用 "to"连接。但是,以下情况例外:
make, let, have等使役动词,如:
Shall I have him come here?(要我叫他来吗?)
I won't have him cheat me. (否定式,表示"容许":我决不容许他欺骗我)
上述句型变为被动语态时,一般要加 "to",如:
The nurse made the patient eat something. (护士让病人吃了点东西。)
→The patient was made to eat something.
有时,宾语补足语也可用 -ing形式,如:
His joke made us laughing for a couple of minutes. (他的笑话使我们笑了几分钟。- 注意后面的时间状语for a couple of minutes)
记住下面重要表达方式:
to have / get (something) done, 如:
I am going to have (get) my watch repaired.(我去修一下表。)
n see, hear, notice, observe, watch, look at, listen to 等感觉动词:
使用原则与上述大致相同。
2) 要不要 "it"的问题:
先看两个句子:
We sometimes find it difficult to get rid of a bad habit. (有时我们发现要改掉一个坏习惯很难。)该句的原始结构可理解为:We sometimes find (to get rid of a bad habit) difficult. 括号部分(动词不定式)为宾语,difficult为宾语补足语
The doctor has made it clear to you that there is nothing wrong with your stomach.(医生已经跟你说得很清楚了,你的胃没有什么问题。)该句的原始结构可理解为:The doctor has made (there is nothing wrong with your stomach)clear. 括号部分(句子)为宾语,clear为宾语补足语。
动词的时态和语态
时态和语态是英语动词的两个最基本特征,是英语语法基础的基础,这里不一一解释了,只是将学生容易搞错以及考试的重点部分作一些说明。
许多学生和个别老师认为只有英语才有时态,这是个误解。其实,任何语言都有三个基本时态:过去、现在、将来。只是英语把时态的表述方式通过动词的变化分得比较细,如:现在时中又分为:一般式,进行式,完成式,完成进行式等。过去和将来时也可以此类推。
(一)几个基本时态的概念、用法和考点
n 一般现在时:用来表述真理、习惯、现在的状态和性质等,常与always, usually, often, frequently, occasionally, seldom, rarely 等频度副词或from time to time, at all times等短语连用。
要点:频度副词的位置:
She seldom comes here. (行为动词之前)
She is always late. (be动词之后)
n 现在完成时:用来表述已经完成或部分完成的动作或状态,其特点是1)不出现动作发生的具体时间(一旦出现,就变成"过去时");2)常与 "for" 或 "since" 引导的时间状语(表示一个时间段,不是一个时间点) 连用。
要点:"for" 和 "since" 是现在完成时的标志词
实例:
______ the end of 1999 the output of the consuming products in Shanghai has increased by over 30%.
A. At
B. By
C. Since
D. After
在实考中,许多考生选了A,特别是有一定英语基础的考生,他们误认为该题是考at the end of 这个短语,我们将此类选项称为"干扰项",往往安排在A的位置。因此,当你认为A特别简单时,要小心辨别是否是"干扰项".此题的正确答案为C, 现在完成时。
n 现在进行时:用来表述正在进行的行为,常与now, look, listen等表示"现在"的词连用(注意:be, know, want, believe和部分半系动词一般没有进行时),如:
Look, the sun ______ brightly in the sky.
A. shines
B. was shining
C. is shining
D. has shown
解题思路:look"看",表示与说话时间同步;brightly是副词,说明 shine不是半系动词,故答案为C
n 现在完成进行时:用来表述说话时已完成部分内容,目前还在做的行为,其特点是除了"for" 或 "since"外,常出现all day, all the morning等包括说话时间在内的时间状语连用,如"整个上午",说话时也是上午。
n 一般过去时和过去完成时:这是中国学生学习的一个难点,因此也是考试的一个重点
过去完成时:发生在过去一个时间点之前的一个过去行为或状态,常用在:
1) 宾语从句(间接引语)中:He said (that) he had read the book several times.
2) 状语从句中(特别是时间状语从句):When we arrived at the cinema, the film had begun.
3) 由by引导的时间状语句中:He had completed all the college courses by 15 years of age. (15岁时,他已经完成了大学的所有课程。)
错:We had finished the task yesterday.
对:We finished the task yesterday. 或We had finished the task by yesterday.
要点:"by" 是过去完成时(和将来完成时)的标志词。
分清现在完成时、过去时、过去完成时的区别是英语时态学习的重点。
n 过去将来时:用来表述过去一个时间点以后的事情,其方向正好与过去完成时相反,如:
He said he would come to the meeting personally. (他说他将亲自出席会议。)
n 一般将来时和将来完成时:记住上面一句话: "by" 是将来完成时的标志词。
比较:
The world population will be over 6.5 billion in 2050.
The world population will have been over 6.5 billion by 2050.
其他的时态,如过去进行时,将来进行时等,只要把握好时间状语,一般比较容易理解,这里不再举例。
(二)语态:表示行为的主动或被动,即:to do something 还是to be done (by)
语态始终是英语语法的一个考点,只有及物动词才有被动语态。但要区分动词的及物和不及物不是靠几个讲座能解决的,要注意观察,特别是对本节"第二句型"和"第五句型中提到的有关问题要反复思考。
解题思路:当你对"主动"和"被动"选项犹豫不决时,应倾向选"被动"项。
小结:第二讲的重点是:1)"五个基本句型"中应注意的问题; 2)英语时态的基本特征和用法,是英语语法必考内容。
并列复合句
简单地说,由简单并列连词and, but, or,或复合并列连词both… and…, neither…nor…, either…or…, not only…but also…连接的句子称为并列复合句。
重点:
1) and - 不能简单地理解为"和",除了起连接作用外,应根据句子的上下文判别其实际意义,总的表示"递进".
例如:He is ill and he cannot come to the party this evening.
2) But - 表示"转折"
所以要确定,应根据上下文,特别是两个句子中的用词是"同方向的"还是"反方向的",前者一般用 "and", 后者一般用 "but",.
例如:
There was little rain last year______ the farmers still got a bumper crop.
这个句中"little rain"(少雨)和"a bumper crop"(丰收)是相反方向的用词,故应填"but".请回忆一下"第一讲"中的有关示例。
3) or - 解释为"或者",表示选择,但在"非真实条件句中"解释为"否则",引出"含蓄虚拟式" (见"虚拟语气"一讲),不要混淆。 6)
4) 关于复合并列连词,主要注意两个问题,一是"数",二是句子的"均衡".
在历年军队职称考试中,并列复合句方面的题出得较少。
你能看出下句的问题吗?
His salary as a bus driver is more higher than a teacher. ( 他是个公共汽车司机,他的工资要比教师高。)
该句有两个大错1)high的比较级为higher,2)主语his salary(他的工资)而比较对象是a teacher,两者不可比,怎样的表达才是对的呢?请选择:
His salary as a bus driver is much higher ______.
A.in comparison with a teacherB.than a teacher
C.than a teacher's D.than that of a teacher's
正确答案是C,也可以写成than that of a teacher(请联系名词格的概念想一想)
最高级the most of +比较范围 / 最高级+名词+that (不是which)定语从句,例如:
This is the most interesting film that I have ever seen. (这是我看过的最有趣的电影。)
the more…the more…
The longer you wear glasses, the more you depend on them. (眼镜戴的时间越长越有依赖性。)
考试时,一般只要认准"the" 和比较级形式就不难判别。
其他表示比较意思的形式
A is superior / inferior to B(A 比B高级 / 低级)
注意:superior/ inferior前不能再加 more 或者less; 用to不是用 than.
例如:
Humans are superior to animals in that they can use languages to communicate.(人比动物高级在于人能用语言进行交际。)
prefer… rather than (宁可…而不…)
例如:
I preferred to stay out in the cold rather than spend the night there. (我宁可呆在外面受冷,也不在那儿过夜。)
Would rather…than… ……(用法和意思与上句型差不多)
where : 当先行名词在从句中当"地点状语"时,用关系副词where连接
例如:
The crime rate rises in cities where the unemployment rate increases. (失业率高的城市犯罪率也高。) 句中的where = in cities, 表示行为发生的地点。
这里的要点是能否区分是用that (which) 还是用 where, 即:是做"主语、宾表语",还是做"地点状语",例如:
I love the small town that we visited last week.
句中"town"做动词"visited"的宾语,即"参观过的小镇",故用that连接。
I love the small town where I lived during my childhood.
句中"town" 是动词"lived"的地点,即"童年时住过的小镇",故用where.
这也是定语从句的一个考点。
when : 当先行名词在从句中当"时间状语"时,用关系副词when连接, 例如:
July is the month when we have a lot of rain. (七月是多雨的月份。)
注意"when"定语从句后推的现象,例如:
I think (that) the day will finally come when air pollution can be put under control. (我认为空气污染得以控制的一天最终会来到。)
放在主句后面作非限制定语从句时(前面一般加","号),"when"一般译为"此时","那时", 例如:
The meeting will be put off until next month, when we will have made all the preparations. (会议将推迟到下月,那时一切就准备就绪了。)
另一个关系副词是why,由于它固定与the reason搭配, 即: the reason why,不难理解,一般也不作为考试的重点。例如:
This is the reason why the electronic computer cannot entirely replace man. 这就是(为什么)电子计算机不能完全代替人的原因。
whose (= of which / whom):做先行词(不管是人还是物)的定语,汉语为"…的",不要考虑是否是限制性或非限制性定语从句, 例如:
Pay attention to that boy whose temperature is very high. (理论上也可以写成:Pay attention to that boy the temperature of whom is very high. 注意那个男孩,他的体温很高。(非限制性) / 注意那个体温很高的男孩。(限制性)
介词 + which (whom)
先看两个句子:
This is the house. He has lived in the house for over 30 years.
变为↓定语从句
This is the house in which he has lived for over 30 years.
上述句子中,先行词在从句中充当介词宾语,形成"介词 + which / whom"的形式,考试时要求作出1)要不要介词;2)若要,使用什么介词的判断。由于英语中介词搭配多为习惯用法,没有多少规律可循,因此这是定语从句考试的一个难点。
记住四个字:瞻前顾后
瞻前:先看看先行词一般与什么介词搭配,例如:
There are occasions _____ which joking is not permissible.
→ Joking is not permissible _____ (certain) occasions.
常与occasion搭配的介词是什么?on, 即:
Joking is not permissible on (certain) occasions. (有的场合是不容许开玩笑的。)
↓
There are occasions on which joking is not permissible.
顾后:看看谓语动词常与什么介词搭配,例如:
This car, ____ which I paid a lot of money, is now out of date.
→ I paid a lot of money ______ this car.
Pay (money) for something 是一个固定的搭配,因此应填介词 "for"
当A、B、C、D中出现 " 介词 + which / whom" 选项时,而你又确实看不懂时,应倾向于选择" 介词 + which / whom"的形式,例如:
The two elements _____ water is made are the gases oxygen and hydrogen.
A. that
B. which
C. with which
D. of which
倾向选择C、D;正确答案D,"be made of "(由…组成):
The two elements are gases (oxygen and hydrogen).
Water is made of the two elements.
两个句子一合并,便是该句选择。
(四)其他应注意的确问题:
(1) 同位语从句只能用"that"连接
常见的同位语先行词有:fact(事实), possibility(可能), idea(想法), belief(相信), doubt(疑问), news(消息), order(命令), promise(承诺), evidence(证据), suggestion(建议)等,例如:
Is there any possibility that all the villagers can send their children to school?(有没有这种可能,所有村民都能送他们的孩子上学?)
There can be no doubt that he is a qualified doctor.(毫无疑问,他是个合格的医生。)
(2) "as" 也可以做关系代词用于连接定语从句,特别是在"such…as…", "the same as…" 以及"正如…"的结构中,例如:
I have never seen a thing as he described. (我从未见过他所描述的那种事。)
As was expected, the performance was a great success. (正如所料,演出获得了巨大成功。)
把该句理解为:The performance was a great success, which was expected,就比较容易理解as的这种用法。
将定语从句的连接用三句话归纳一下:
↗ 人用who / whom
(1)先行词在从句中当主、宾、表语 →定语用whose
↘ 物用that (= which)/ 非限制用which
↗地点状语用:where
(2)先行词在从句中当 →原因状语(reason)用:why
↘ 时间状语用:when
(3)介词 + which / whom结构:瞻前顾后
这是一个主语从句 + 表语从句的结构,介词against和 for后面都没有宾语,无疑都应填what:一些人反对的就是其他人赞成的。
应注意的问题:
1) 关于what的疑问性和名词性:
I don't know what you don't know.
这个句子可以有两个译文:我不知道你不知道什么。/ 你不知道的我也不知道。显然,第一个译文中what是疑问性的(即"什么?");第二个译文中what是名词性的,中文往往表达为"…的".
注意:这种区分并不影响做语法选择题,只影响翻译理解.
例如:
What has made Japan ______ it is today?
不要急着试图翻译这个句子,先考虑一下从句中缺了什么成分?缺表语,即: it is 的表语,那就填what, 即:What has made Japan what it is today? 是什么使日本成为今天这个样子?句中第一个what是疑问性的,第二个what是名词性的。
2) 关于whoever和whomever的用法:
上面讲到,what具有疑问性和名词性。同样,讲到人"谁"时, 也有疑问性和名词性之分。现代语法规定,疑问性 "谁?"用who / whom,名词性"谁 = 那个人"用whoever/ whomever. (whoever / whomever = the person who / whom), 例如:
谁迟到就开除谁。该句中的"谁"不是问"哪个人迟到了?",而是说"迟到的那个人",显然是名词性的,应译为:Whoever comes late will be fired.
这也是目前语法考试的一个重点。
3) 用who 还是whom?